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The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition(8652s).pdf |
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Richard Evans Schultes, Ph.D., Jeffrey Professor of Biology and Director, Harvard Botanical Museum (Emeritus) James Trefil, Ph.D., Clarence J. Robinson Professor of Physics, George Mason University
Sociology...
Malcolm Cowley* Writer; literary adviser, Viking Press, Inc.; formerly Associate Editor, New Republic Robert W. Creamer Writer; biographer; formerly Senior Editor, Sports Illustrated Gene D. Dahmen Attorney; past President, Boston Bar Association Marshall B. Davidson* Writer; Senior Editor, Horizon; formerly Editor of Publications, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Robertson Davies* Writer; founding Master, Massey College, University of Toronto; Professor of English and Drama Lois DeBakey Writer, lecturer, and consultant; Professor of Scientific Communication, Baylor College of Medicine Vine Deloria, Jr. Standing Rock Sioux Tribe Professor of Law, Religious Studies, Political Science, and History, University of Colorado Joan Didion Author Annie Dillard Writer; recipient, Pulitzer Prize William K. Durr Professor of Education Emeritus, Michigan State University; past President, International Reading Association Andrea Dworkin Writer Freeman J. Dyson Writer; Professor of Physics, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey Anne Edwards Biographer and novelist; past President, Authors Guild Gretel Ehrlich Writer; Guggenheim Fellow from Wyoming Ralph Ellison* Writer; educator Louise Erdrich Author Carolly Erickson Historian; writer Howard Fast Writer Frances FitzGerald Writer; contributor, New Yorker; recipient, Pulitzer Prize Elizabeth Frank Writer; Joseph E. Harry Professor of Modern Languages and Literature, Bard College; recipient, Pulitzer Prize Reuven Frank Author; columnist, New Leader magazine; formerly President, NBC News; formerly Executive Producer, Huntley-Brinkley Report John Kenneth Galbraith Economist; writer; formerly U.S. Ambassador to India; formerly Paul M. Warburg Professor of Economics Emeritus, Harvard University Sara Garnes Linguist; Director of First Year Composition and Associate Professor of English, Ohio State University Michael G. Gartner Columnist, USA Today; editor, Ames (Iowa) Daily Tribune; language columnist; formerly President, NBC News; past President, American Society of Newspaper Editors; past chairman, Pulitzer Prize Board Henry Louis Gates, Jr. Chair, Department of Afro-American Studies; W.E.B. Du Bois Professor of Humanities, Harvard University J. Edward Gates Lexicographer; editor; Professor Emeritus of English, Indiana State University...
Armistead Maupin Author Alice E. Mayhew Editorial Director, Trade Division, Simon & Schuster The Hon. Eugene McCarthy Writer, poet, and lecturer; formerly U.S. Senator from Minnesota David McCord Poet; essayist; Honorary Curator of the Poetry and Farnsworth Rooms, Harvard University Library Kenneth McCormick Senior Consulting Editor, Bantam Doubleday Dell; formerly Editor in Chief, Doubleday & Company, Inc. Mary McGrory Journalist; columnist, Washington Post and Universal Press Syndicate; recipient, Pulitzer Prize Leonard Michaels Professor of English, University of California, Berkeley James A. Michener Writer; recipient, Pulitzer Prize and Presidential Medal of Freedom Hassan Minor, Jr. Vice President for Government Affairs, Howard University Richard Scott Mitchell* Mineralogist; educator; writer; Professor of Environmental Science, University of Virginia; Executive Editor, Rocks and Minerals Jessica Mitford Writer Lance Morrow Essayist and Senior Writer, Time; recipient, National Magazine Award The Hon. Daniel Patrick Moynihan U.S. Senator from New York; formerly Professor of Political Science, Harvard University Cullen Murphy Managing Editor, Atlantic The Hon. Maurine Neuberger Formerly U.S. Senator from Oregon; formerly Oregon state legislator Ambassador Thomas M.T. Niles U.S. Ambassador to Greece; formerly Assistant Secretary of State for European and Canadian Affairs, U.S. Representative to the European Community, and U.S. Ambassador to Canada David Ogilvy, C.B.E. Advertising copywriter; Officer of the Order of Arts and Letters (France); past Chair, United Negro College Fund Cynthia Ozick Novelist; essayist; member, American Academy of Arts and Letters Robert S. Pirie Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, Rothschild Inc. Alvin F. Poussaint, M.D. Clinical Professor of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School Ellen F. Prince Professor of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania Jane Bryant Quinn Journalist; syndicated financial columnist, Newsweek and Good Housekeeping Tony Randall Actor William James Raspberry Syndicated urban affairs columnist; Knight Professor for the Practice of Journalism, Duke University; recipient, Pulitzer Prize...
A NATURAL H I S T O R Y OF ENGLISH: LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND THE AMERICAN HERITAGE
LEE PEDERSON...
ficient evidence to prove it. He does not so much assert as exhibit. He has no transient or private purposes to serve....
in their respective translations of the Medieval Latin (Matthew 6:9) “pater noster, qui est in caelis, sanctificetur nomen tuum”: NORTHUMBRIAN Fader urer thu arth in heofnas, sie gehalgad noma thin Father our thou art in heaven, be hallowed name thy MERCIAN Fæder ure thu the in heofunum earth, beo gehalgad thin noma Father our thou which in heaven art, be hallowed thy name WEST SAXON Fæder ure thu the eart on heofonum, si thin nama gehalgod Father our thou which art in heaven, be thy name hallowed Despite differences in pronunciation, word formation, and syntax, simple and effective conversation was surely possible among speakers of these different regional dialects of English. Conversation was also possible between the English and their Viking conquerors, the Norwegians and the Danes, many of whom settled primarily in what are now the northeast counties and took up peaceful ways with English wives. The fact that cultural interaction extended through most of the Old English period (449–1066) is evidenced in the greatest literary monument of the Anglo-Saxons, their epic poem Beowulf, which has a thoroughly Scandinavian setting and cast. Words shared by Anglo-Saxons and Vikings include bring, can, come, father, folk, house, life, man, mine, mother, see, sit, smile, sorrow, summer, thine, wife, will, winter, and wise. In addition to hundreds of such intimate correspondences, the Scandinavians gave English many other familiar words through cultural interaction: anger, fellow, happy, husband, meek, root, rotten, skill, skin, skull, sky, and ugly. A second and much greater influence was brought to bear on the language and culture after the Battle of Hastings in 1066, when the Normans, French-speaking descendants of the Vikings, arrived from Normandy....
Through force and friendship they gave the English a chivalric code, a parliamentary system of government, and one of the most distinctive architectural styles in all of European civilization. During the period of Norman dominion, English vernaculars evolved without a native standard dialect. The cultural influence of the Vikings emerged most clearly in Scandinavian loan words that marked regional speech in those northern counties where they had settled earlier, as the regional dialects of England were broadly reorganized. In the process, Middlesex became the preeminent focal area, and from its center arose the London Standard, the most influential social variety the English language has ever known. Several dialects of 14th-century England were the immediate ancestors of the London Standard, but it drew most from the speech of the Southeast Midland region. The recorded usage of that era illustrates great linguistic change, a process that began more than 200 years earlier through the mingling of English and French. Causal relations for the change are hard to establish because phonological, grammatical, lexical, and cultural modifications were under way before the Battle of Hastings. Romance language words, such as cheese, copper, and dish, entered Germanic dialects from Latin before the invasion of England in A.D. 449; from the same source came cleric, psalm, and temple with the Christianization of England in the seventh century. Later Romance loans in Old English include pride (French), capon and castle (French or Latin), and apostle, epistle, lily, and peony (Latin). Old English texts of the tenth century--the Vercelli Book, Exeter Book, Junius Manuscript, and Beowulf Manuscript--show the early simplification of weakly stressed vowels and inflectional patterns. During the reign of Edward the Confessor (1042–1066) a Norman association was firmly established between the king and his cousin, William the Conqueror, underscored by the installation of Robert of Jumieges as archbishop of Canterbury in 1051. During the next 300 years the French presence altered the development of English through direct contributions and reinforcement of linguistic trends already under way. Four voiced fricative consonants emerged as distinctive elements of the sound system during this period, the initial sounds of veal, zeal, and thee, as well as the medial sound of leisure. None of these were distinctive in Old English, which had only the fricatives of feel, seal, thing, and pressure, respectively. The single outright contribution of Norman French to the English sound system was the diphthong of joy. French usage did accelerate the leveling of weakly stressed vowels, the simplification of noun, pronoun, and adjective inflections, and the transfer of many strong (irregular) verbs to weak (regular) conjugations. For example, Old English forms of modern doom included domes (genitive singular), domas (nominative plural), and domum (dative plural); all became doomes in Middle English. Strong verbs such as creopan, helpan, and slaepan became the weak verbs creep, help, and sleep, although a residue of the old patterns endures in the past forms crept and slept, as well as holp (pronounced like hope) in several current American dialects....
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